Thales free essay sample

Thales In Brian Magees Story of Philosophy he created that Thales,the pre Socratic Greek philospher of Miletus and originator of Milesian school,taught that everything in nature is made out of one essential issue. Thales assumed that water the was the key structure square of all things and the Earth skimmed on water. In Joseph Carters address he expresses that Thales inferred that everything appear to require water,if not straightforwardly then indirectly,so water was the wellspring of all things(Phil 101-501 Delgado Community College Fall 2011). It was thought by Thales that the Earth must be upheld by water,since all grounds are encircled by water. He calculated that every living thing need an immense and steady admission of water to continue living. There are various realities that appear to back up Thales hypotheses. The human body is comprised of 60 percent water( Story of Philosphy pg 13). We will compose a custom paper test on Thales or on the other hand any comparative point explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page The Earth is likewise comprised of 71 percent water to surface region. Water at extremely high temperatures become air and at exceptionally low temperatures become rock( Story of Philosophy pg 13). Magee clarified that Thales additionally watched and considered the world ,utilizing direct obversation and motivation to manage him on his journey for information. He graphed the stars,moon,and planets just as utilizing geometry and sensible successions to quantify shadow lengths as a proportion of separations. In conclussion, Thales hypothesis that all things being water, originates from water, and will come back to water,in that time period appeared to be conceivable. These thougths were intelligent simply because it couldnt be demonstrated in any case in that time span. We presently realize that every single material article are reducible to vitality and totally negates Thales hypothesis. Thales was one of the primary philosphers and his therioes opened the entryway for other incredible scholars to yield his contemplations and go further with their quest for shrewdness. Brian Magee,The Story of Philosophy,New York, DK Publishing,1998 Joseph Carter,Lectures, Phil 101-501 Delgado Community College, Fall 2011

Essay On Leadership and Strategy Evaluation Essays

Exposition On Leadership and Strategy Evaluation Essays Exposition On Leadership and Strategy Evaluation Essay Exposition On Leadership and Strategy Evaluation Essay Meaning Of a Leadership It is generally acknowledged that pioneers assume a basic job in associations and networks. Nonetheless, the meaning of a pioneer has been disputable. As indicated by Locke (2009), authority is characterized as a procedure that includes initiating others with the goal that they can make a move whose end is the accomplishment of a shared objective. To Locke and Sadler (2003), initiative fuses three components: a social idea, a procedure, and an activity. Authority doesn't exist aside from when one is discussing the connection with supporters. The nonattendance of devotees infers the nonappearance of administration. At the point when characterized in social idea, powerful pioneers have been depicted as the individuals who are acceptable in moving and identifying with their adherents. Authority has likewise been characterized with respect to a procedure in that for one to be depicted as a pioneer, he/she should accomplish something. To defenders of this hypothesis, initiative includes s omething other than holding a title or some other situation of power. Be that as it may, albeit a formalized situation of power can exist to encourage an administration procedure, Locke contended that basically possessing such a position isn't sufficient to make one a pioneer. A pioneer is likewise required to actuate others to make some type of move, and a pioneer can utilize different ways to deal with prompt their adherents to make some move toward a shared objective. A portion of the methodologies heads can utilize to incite his adherents to make a move incorporate displaying by setting a model, hierarchical rebuilding, imparting a dream, genuine power, group building, objective setting, and fulfilling and rebuffing (Locke, 1999). It has been contended that the manner in which pioneers actualize plans, give guidance to their supporters, and rouse their kin to shifting starting with one pioneer then onto the next along these lines bringing about different administration styles. A portion of the initiative styles incorporate imperious, Laissez-Faire, participative, value-based, and transformational (Johnson, 2017; Northouse, 2012). Johnson (2017) depicted participative pioneer as one who utilizes a fair style of authority. Such pioneers esteem contribution from friends and colleagues. In any case, the obligation of settling on a ultimate choices depend on the pioneer. Then again, value-based pioneers give either rewards or disciplines to friends or colleagues as indicated by their presentation results. Transformational pioneers, nonetheless, depend on an elevated level of correspondence to their colleagues to meet their objectives. Such pioneers propel their supporters or representatives and improve effectivenes s and profitability through a mix of high perceivability and correspondence. A transformational style of initiative necessitates that the administration is profoundly engaged with the accomplishment of the hierarchical objectives. Pioneers who utilize transformational administration style center around the enormous hierarchical picture and representative littler assignments or errands to the colleagues to achieve with the goal that they can accomplish the general authoritative objective (Johnson, 2017). Northouse (2012) included that transformational initiative includes a procedure where the pioneer draws in with supporters and makes an association that helps the degree of profound quality as well as the degree of inspiration for both the devotee and the pioneer. He further brought up that transformational pioneers are mindful to the requirements just as intentions of their supporters and endeavor to ensure that their adherents arrive at their fullest potential. On account of Booker and Newark occupants (Cohen, 2014; Russakoff, 2014), Booker strived to guarantee that the individuals of Newark get to the best training framework in the nation. He needed to make Newark government funded educational system to be a model of how best state funded schools ought to be run in the nation. Bookers thought was to change one of the most exceedingly awful performing state funded training frameworks to be as well as can be expected be in the entire nation. His odds of accomplishment in this undertaking would have been impacted by numerous components. Authoritative Performance Improvement Pioneers not just can possibly improve authoritative execution yet in addition a disappointment of associations to accomplish their exhibition objectives. An investigation of administration styles proposes that pioneers can impact their associations in different manners. Choudhary, Akhtar, and Zaheer (2013) inspected the impact of two near authority styles on the results of hierarchical execution. Their discoveries propose that transformational authority has more impact on authoritative learning than worker administration. The scientists further discovered that a more elevated level of hierarchical learning is answerable for a higher authoritative exhibition. The creators at that point recommended that pioneers can pick a style of administration that can assist them with achieving what they need to accomplish in their associations. Their outcomes are like those of Noruzy et al. (2013) who additionally discovered that transformational initiative affects the authoritative learning just as information the executives. Transformational initiative style likewise hugy affects the advancement inside an association. By and large, the scientists discoveries uncovered that transformational initiative has an impact on the authoritative execution. Pioneers who wish to upgrade their hierarchical presentation can, in this manner, select to pick transformational initiative style. Albeit a great deal has been concentrated on how authority can impact hierarchical execution, Peterson, Smith, Martorana, Owens (2003) contended that pioneers are additionally liable for the disappointment of their associations. As indicated by the creators, administration character is one of the variables that can decide authoritative achievement and hierarchical disappointment. They brought up that if the top administration character is terrible, the association can expand the odds of authoritative disappointment. Be that as it may, if the character of the top heads in an association is proper, the association has an expanded possibility of prevailing in its strategic. Newark schools had been performing ineffectively for an extremely prolonged stretch of time. Booker had noted declining execution and had longed for when he can intercede. His opportunity to change the poor training arrangement of Newark came after his political race as a city hall leader for Newark. The Newark training framework was in an emergency. In circumstances of emergency, pioneers rise. Initiative includes propelling others toward a shared objective. With regards to Newark training framework, the shared objective was to improve the declining scholarly norms and make a national model on the best way to upgrade a whole school area. As a pioneer, Booker accepted that he was the truly necessary pioneer to lead the Newark out of the instruction emergency. Booker had a dream of turning Newark instruction framework to be the best in the nation. Booker noticed that to prevail with regards to transforming his vision into the real world, one of the most basic assets was subsidizing. T hus, as a decided pioneer, he looked for assets from givers to assist him with accomplishing his vision. In the wake of imparting his vision for Newark, numerous altruists gave their cash to assist Booker with understanding his vision. One of the individuals who was pulled in by Bookers vision was Mark Zuckerberg who gave his $100 million to help in the change of the Newark training framework (Russakoff, 2014). In the wake of acquiring adequate assets, the time had come to actualize his vision to bring an upgrade of the training framework. In spite of the fact that Booker had exhibited model authority abilities and transformative thoughts regarding the Newark instruction framework, he neglected to understand that execution of a dream requires the participation of a larger number of individuals than lenders. Sooner or later, Booker was reminded by Zuckerberg to pick an able pioneer who can turn into the Superintendent. As a decent pioneer, Booker need not be reminded about the need select an individual to lead the change or the attributes of an individual who could help change the bombing instruction arrangement of the Newark. Zuckerberg thought to Booker was that he ought to pick a transformational pioneer as a confirmation that the vision of changing the Newark instruction framework would have been effective. Booker had invested a ton of energy searching for the assets, however he committed brief period in putting resources into appropriate initiative structures. For instance, he ought to build up a sound administrati on structure that was going to work with him to actualize the vision. A sound initiative structure would have helped him to arrange for how the assets would be gotten and how it would be spent. Besides, the authority structure would have formulated better manners by which the assets got would have been viably used. Booker had a powerless authority structure. He just figured out how to select Superintendent in a rush. In spite of the fact that Anderson, the director, exhibited that she was capable, still there was a great deal of shortcoming in the general authority structure. Anderson way of commitment won the hearts of numerous individuals recommending that she had great initiative aptitudes. Be that as it may, Anderson came without a plan however a reasonable vision. As indicated by her, the most significant thing was to characterize achievement, and she discovered it as something straightforward. This is a further sign of poor authority in the change procedure. This was exhibited in the way wherein the choices were made. From the given data, there was poor dynamic in issues relating the training arrangement of Newark. Booker and Anderson settled on key choices without the slightest hesitation to see whether they were going to work or they were going to confront a few difficulties. All through the, there is no proof of the

What Happens If You Smoke Marijuana

What Happens If You Smoke Marijuana Addiction Drug Use Marijuana Print What Happens If You Smoke Marijuana? Reactions with pot can vary widely By Buddy T facebook twitter Buddy T is an anonymous writer and founding member of the Online Al-Anon Outreach Committee with decades of experience writing about alcoholism. Learn about our editorial policy Buddy T Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on August 05, 2016 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on June 24, 2019 Sean Gallup Collection / Getty Images News More in Addiction Drug Use Marijuana Cocaine Heroin Meth Ecstasy/MDMA Hallucinogens Opioids Prescription Medications Alcohol Use Addictive Behaviors Nicotine Use Coping and Recovery The reaction you may have when trying marijuana can vary dramatically based on many factors.?? Some people report not feeling anything at all when they smoke marijuana. In other cases, people report feeling relaxed or high. Some people who use  marijuana report having sudden feelings of anxiety and paranoid thoughts and that might be caused by trying a higher potency marijuana, according to the National Institute on Drug Abuse.?? Research also shows that regular use of marijuana is linked to an increased risk of depression, anxiety and a loss of motivation or drive.?? You may feel dopey on the drug, which is when you begin to lose interest in activities that you might have previously enjoyed or you may lose the ability to grasp concepts easily. Short-Term Discomforts of Using Weed The effects of using marijuana can be unpredictable, especially when it is mixed with other drugs, research shows. You may feel relaxed on the drug, but other things you might not be expecting with pot use can include rapid heart rate and other unpleasantries.?? Dry mouthSwollen eyelidsBloodshot eyesLoss of coordinationAccelerated heart rate Short-Term Hazards As with any drug or substance that can alter perception, logic and usual behavior, there are several short-term hazards of using marijuana from impairing driving abilities to memory loss.?? Learning difficultiesLack of attention and focusPoor driving skillsAnxiety and paranoiaImpaired memoryDifficulty in thinking Long-Term Hazards Any drug that is taken over a prolonged period of time can have an effect on your health. Several of the physical barriers that can occur range from infertility problems to overall brain functions.?? An increased risk of developing lung, head, and neck cancersLack of motivationDecreased sperm count in menIrregular menstruation in womenRespiratory problemsHeightened risk of infections, especially the lungsPoor short-term memory recallInability to shift attention normallyInability to understand complex information? Unpredictable Reactions The National Institute on Drug Abuse reports that marijuana can affect each person differently according to their own body chemistry and the type of pot used.?? Some people can use weed and never have any negative reactions while others may try it and get entirely freaked out by the experience. Your biology (genetic makeup)Marijuanas strength (amount of active ingredient THC)Previous experience with the drugHow its taken (smoked versus ingested)Whether alcohol or other drugs are taken too? Not Your Grandfathers Pot   Studies have found that the marijuana available today is much different in terms of potency compared to what was generally available in the 1960s  when the use of the drug became widespread in the United States.?? Todays strains of the plant contain much more of the active ingredient in marijuana: tetrahydrocannabinol or THC, researchers say.?? That makes todays weed much more potent than that smoked by the hippies and flower children of the Woodstock generation. Edible Marijuana Products More Potent? As recreational marijuana becomes legal in more states in the U.S., more edible products containing marijuana are hitting the market. When marijuana is ingested it is absorbed by the body more slowly and the effects can last longer and be stronger.?? Emergency rooms have reported an increase of cases involving negative reactions to marijuana and many of those cases can be traced back to edible marijuana products.

Artificial Intelligence An Intelligent Computer Program

Humans have developed a wonderful fascination with artificial intelligence since it first introduced to the world in the 1950’s. The Merriam-Webster defined Artificial Intelligence as â€Å"a branch of computer science dealing with the simulation of intelligent behavior in computers.† Another definition is â€Å"the capability of a machine to imitate intelligent human behavior.† Computer science was cool on its own but to incorporate human intelligence into it sounded like a group breaking idea. There would be no limit to what humans can do with intelligent machines and computer programming. In the 1950s this type of technology was far beyond its scientists’ lifetime but to grasp a concept that one day, science would be so far advanced that artificial intelligence will be apart of our everyday life. Before reaching a goal to creating an intelligent computer program, we first have to understand what intelligence is, it is â€Å"the computational part of th e ability to achieve goals in the world. The ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills.† So how can we get a computer to be intelligent? Let’s start with the origin of it all. British Mathematician, Alan Turing published a paper called â€Å"Computing Machinery and Intelligence. In the paper, Turing argued that if a machine could past a certain test, then we would have evidence to say that the computer was intelligent. The test turns out to be the ‘Turing test;’ a human being asking questions through a computer terminal to either aShow MoreRelatedArtificial Intelligence and Cognitive Reasoning1597 Words   |  7 Pagesrepresentation of a humanoid character that is in fact a machine functioning and learning new skills with artificial intelligence. The problem with these shows is that the representation of modern day artificial intelligence is largely skewed, these machines have personalities and emotions making them relatable to humans when they ar e still just a very elaborate computer program. Artificial intelligence is the cognitive ability to solve problems, recognize patterns, and have the capability to learn, withRead More Artificial Intelligence and Investing Essay1648 Words   |  7 PagesArtificial Intelligence and Investing INTRODUCTION Artificial intelligence can be defined as the ability of a computer to perform activities normally considered to require human intelligence. The techniques of this intelligence include knowledge-based, machine learning, and natural language processing techniques. Investing can be defined as the act of committing money to an endeavour with the exception of obtaining profit. Investing activities require data identification, asset valuation (theRead MoreComputer Vs. Artificial Intelligence926 Words   |  4 PagesHumans and computers both originate from man whether it be biologically or mechanically. Both humans and computers A man can have a plethora of children and also build a computer. As both his Both computers and man are a creation of man. When faced with a problem, human and computers seem to come to a solution in similar ways. In both cases, information is â€Å"placed† in humans and computers by other humans. However, knowing information does not making a single being intelligence, understanding andRead MoreArtificial Intelligence In Chapppie722 Words   |  3 Pageswhere Artificially Intelligent robot police keep the streets in order, smarter inventions are bound to arise. In the movie Chappie, the main character Chappie, is programmed with a new system that can make him feel and think independently. This film relates to the philosophers Searle and Turing due to their similar topics of Artificial Intelligence. Searle distinguishes two types of Artificial Intelligence which is Strong Artificial Intelligence and Weak Artificial Intelligence. They are both categorizedRead MoreThe Pros And Disadvantages Of Artificial Intelligence1423 Words   |  6 PagesArtificial intelligence can be defined as the ability of a computer performing activities normally considered to require human intelligence. According to Blay Whitby, â€Å"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the study of intelligent behavior (in humans, animals, and machines) and the attempt to find ways in which such behavior could be engineered in any type of artifact. It is one of the most difficult and arguably the most exciting enterprise ever undertaken by humanity† (1). Technology is moving at a fastRead MoreEssay about Social And Ethical Impact Of Artificial Intelligence1370 Words   |  6 PagesAs our world expands through the growing abilities and applications of computers in our everyday lives, it seems that the role of the co mputer has been reversed. Before we knew that the computer only understood what we programmed it to understand; however, now the majority of our society is learning more from computers than they are able to input into it. Dumm (1986 p.69) History The human aspiration to create intelligent machines has appeared in myth and literature for thousands of years, fromRead MoreSocial and Ethical Impact of Artificial Intelligence Essay examples1503 Words   |  7 PagesWhat is Artificial Intelligence? III Social and Ethical Issues Associated with Artificial Intelligence IV Part I Social Impact of Artificial Intelligence IV Part II Advantages IV Part III Disadvantages IV Ethical Impact of Artificial Intelligence V Conclusion VI Bibliography VII Introduction As our world expands through the growing abilities and applications of computers in our everyday lives, it seems that the role of the computer hasRead More Artificial Intelligence Essay966 Words   |  4 PagesArtificial Intelligence Computers are everywhere today. It would be impossible to go your entire life without using a computer. Cars, ATMs, and TVs we use everyday, and all contain computers. It is for this reason that computers and their software have to become more intelligent to make our lives easier and computers more accessible. Intelligent computer systems can and do benefit us all; however people have constantly warned that making computers too intelligent can be to our disadvantageRead MoreThe Dangers Of Artificial Intelligence1701 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"Whoever perceives that robots and artificial intelligence are merely here to serve humanity, think again. With virtual domestic assistants and driverless cars just the latest in a growing list of applications, it is we humans who risk becoming dumbed down and ultimately subservient to machines.† ― Alex Morritt As the years have progressed, more and more people have adapted artificial intelligence systems into their home and everyday lives. A range of inventions include patient simulation systemsRead MoreHow The Society Values Computer Technology1716 Words   |  7 PagesTubonemi Emmanuel Tamunobelema. Matric No: NS160014. Computer and the Society How the Society values Computer Technology Question: Google SDK/Artificial-Intelligence: Is it Good or bad? Table of Content 1.0 Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦1 1.1 My theory†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦2 1.2 Respondents opinions†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦5 2.0 Summary and Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..10 Figures Fig 1.2.0 Do you interact with artificial intelligent systems? .......................................

Icarus The Architecture And Underlying Theory Of Cognition

Icarus as well as SOAR and ACT-R are based on production systems which is a uniting feature most full cognitive architecture. The architecture and underlying theory of cognition for ICARUS is based on Langley et al. [1991]; Choi et al. [2004] and is aimed to create a unified theory of cognition [Newell, 1994]. Instead of using chunks or operators, ICARUS uses concepts and skills to drive their system and the controlled cognitive agent. The system provides short and long-term memory, as well as a learning mechanisms for new skills and concepts. Concepts on the one side describe environmental situations by either referencing other concepts or by taking perceptual information acquired by the system in account. Skills on the other side specify how to achieve goals set by the system. They can be achieved by decomposing them into sub-goals until primitive actions are reached within the goal hierarchy. ICARUS uses hierarchies for concepts and skills to create complex behaviour. Both skills and concepts work hand in hand to approach cognitive tasks splitting knowledge similar to SOAR and ACT-R into declarative and procedural knowledge. The system operates within an environment by interpreting perceptual informa- tion and storing those interpretations as descriptions in the short-term memory. The descriptions represent beliefs about said environment. Figure 2-22 illustrates an in- terpretation of the ICARUS architecture based on Langley et al. [1991]; Choi et al. [2004]. ICARUS canShow MoreRelatedResources Capabilities20336 Words   |  82 Pages MOBILIZING INVISIBLE ASSETS You’ve gotta do what you do well. —LUCINO NOTO, FORMER VICE CHAIRMAN, EXXON MOBIL OUTLINE l Introduction and Objectives l The Role of Resources and l Organizational Capabilities Classifying Capabilities The Architecture of Capability l Appraising Resources and Capabilities Establishing Competitive Advantage Sustaining Competitive Advantage Appropriating the Returns to Competitive Advantage l Putting Resource and Capability Capabilities in Strategy Formulation

The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 Free Essays

In the wake of the financial scandals that struck major corporations such as Enron, WorldCom and Tyco International, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 was enacted â€Å"to protect investors by improving the accuracy and reliability of corporate disclosures , made pursuant to the securities laws. † (P. L. We will write a custom essay sample on The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 or any similar topic only for you Order Now 107-204, 116 Stat. 45) It aims to create new and enhance previously existing standards and practices for the boards of all publicly held companies as well as management and public accounting firms in the United States, delineating and clarifying rights and responsibilities with regards to auditing and accountability and emphasizing such points as auditor independence, corporate governance and responsibility and assessment of internal controls. Specifically, the Act stresses upon a more exhaustive disclosure of financial transactions as reporting requirements of companies based in the United States now need to be more thorough and more critical, and therefore more costly to implement. As such, this comes as a heavy burden to smaller companies who have to contend with the high costs imposed on them to complete their assessments, effectively forcing many of these small businessess to do away with public ownership, which in turn reduces valuable entrepreneurial activity. Ribstein Butler, 2006, p. 101) The Sarbanes-Oxley Act, known in full as the Public Company Accounting Reform and Investor Protection Act, was enacted June 30, 2002 through the sponsorships of Maryland Senator Paul Sarbanes and Ohio 4th District Representative Michael Oxley. The Act has 11 titles dealing with auditor independence, individual responsibility of senior executives for the accuracy and completeness of corporate financial reports, and enhanced reporting requirements for financial transactions. (P. L. 107-204, 116 Stat. 45, Titles II, III, IV) It also includes measures and practices designed to help restore investor confidence in securities analysts, as well as indicating violations and specific criminal penalties for fraud by manipulation of financial records or other interference with investigations. (P. L. 107-204, 116 Stat. 745, Titles VIII, IX, XI) In its establishment, the Act created the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) to regulate and discipline accounting firms as auditors of public companies. It also mandates the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to implement rulings on requirements in compliance with the Act. P. L. 107-204, 116 Stat. 745, Titles I, VI, VII) In his signing statement, President George W. Bush cl aims the Sarbanes-Oxley Act â€Å"the most far-reaching reforms of American business practices since the time of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. † He stressed that it ushers in a new era of integrity and responsibility in corporate America where dishonest leaders will be caught and penalized accordingly, a reference to the major corporate and accounting scandals that affected many large corporations during the ’90s and well into the new millenium, shattering public confidence in the nation’s securities markets. Office of the Press Secretary, 2002) Particularly enraging accounts that led to the creation of the Act are the scandals that involved Enron, WorldCom and Tyco International, where conflicts of interest, unusual and unreasonably justified banking practices, and problems in incentive compensation activities revealed massive fraud on the part of both the companies and their accounting firms, resulting in massive market downturns. (Patsuris, 2002) The Act combats such unscrupulous activities by emphasizing corporate controls and enhanced financial reporting to maintain credibility. Details of off-balance sheet transactions, pro-forma figures and stock transactions of corporate officers must be reported. To assure the accuracy of financial reports and disclosures, management assessment of internal controls must be thoroughly performed. Timely periodic reporting of material changes in financial condition is required, as well as specified enhanced reviews by the SEC of such corporate reports. (P. L. 107-204, 116 Stat. 745, Title IV) A specific part of the Act, Section 404, requires management and external auditor to report on the adequacy of the company’s control over financial reports. This, however, is considered by many the aspect that costs most to implement as enormous effort is needed to document and test important financial controls. Since it requires both management and external auditor to perform assessment in the context of a top-down risk assessment, it must cover all aspects of compliance and thus needs much time, labor and cost. Ribstein Butler, 2006, p. 100) Compliance with Section 404 of the Act has a much greater impact on smaller companies as there is a significant cost involved in completing their assessments. Ribstein and Butler (2006) contend that this necessitates many small businesses to spend much than what they actually earn, driving a huge percentage of their expenditure on compliance alone. This eventually forces them to forgo with public ownership. As an example, during 2004, U. S. companies with revenues exceeding $5 billion spent . 06% of revenue on compliance, while companies with less than $100 million in revenue spent 2. 55%. (U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission, 2006) It is quite unfair that small companies should bear the brunt when they do not earn as much as their bigger counterparts, and the government must take steps and act on what can be seen as a drawback on such a well-intended regulation. In conclusion, while much of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 was created and implemented to help put public trust back into corporations through recognizing and rewarding honest corporate leaders while discplining and fining unaccountable ones, much must be done to help alleviate the apparent burden on small companies who have to spend much on compliance, so that they may flourish and be able to compete without being compelled to spend too much on something that is beyond their capacity. And we should look forward in continuing the good work that the Act itself represents in defending the public from fraudulent and malicious corporate activities. How to cite The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, Papers

Planet Earth free essay sample

If the planet earth continues on the path that it is headed for, it is predicted that between 2020 and 2029 that we will reach our maximum carrying capability for humans. In 1960 the human population was roughly 3 billion, since then it has more then doubled to 6. 8 billion and is still rapidly growing. Humans add 1. 5 million people to this earth every week. There are 4 main causes for the overpopulation of earth; decline in death rate, increase in birth rate, migration and lack of education. With our medicine and technology as proficient as it is today there are far less deaths due to disease and injury than there was 200 years ago. Our technology has enabled us to create many vaccines, cures and comforts for those in need, and as a result people are living longer and healthier lives then ever before. This is a great thing, but without controls on our birth rate our planet cant sustain all these people who once would have died. We will write a custom essay sample on Planet Earth or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Additionally, we have had an increase in births; so the death to birth ratio is disproportionate. Religion has helped increase the birth rates with pro life and anti birth control beliefs around the globe. By circulating these beliefs, less people are having abortions and not using birth control which results in a population increase. Up until recently people who lived in poverty had always had a large number of kids because the chance of a childs survival was slim, so having more kids increased their chance of passing their genes on. Now these people are still having a lot of babies but with our technology today the babies are surviving, so these families cant sustain life where they live so they chose to move to locations with more opportunities. Another leading cause of over population is migration; one of the biggest reasons for someone to migrate is to provide a better life for themselves and their family. This is causing many issues because the financial and tax systems can only handle a certain amount of people. When the systems become overcrowded, people experience food and water shortages and negative affects on educational opportunities provided for the young because there may not be enough resources for all the citizens and the people who just migrated there legally or illegally. If a population isnt adequately educated then they dont understand the concept of overpopulation and how crucial it is to not reach the carrying capability. The uneducated know little of controlling a population and planning a family. Since they dont know have much knowledge on this topic they will keep having large families since they dont know the consequences. If over population continues, it will have damaging effects to everything on this earth. Over population is the basis of most problems we face world wide today; such as global climate change and World famine. Right now there are more people than our mother earth is used to. We are exterminating a huge producer of our oxygen by vigorously cutting down our trees. Lumber companies are buying up land in rainforests such as Brazil, Peru and Columbia, than tearing apart the forests to fulfill the growing demand for wood. As the demand for wood increases due to over population so does all of the earths other resources. Food and water is becoming scarcer which is a necessity for all life. There is millions of starving people in the world and this will only increase if there arent any drastic changes. Although the last time there was a decrease in world population was because of the black plague if properly enforced an ideal solution could be to limit the amount of children a couple can have. If each couple is limited to having 2 children, one to replace each parent after about 50 years this along with other precautions should help decrease the population because many people are infertile. On a global scale each country should be responsible to enforce this problem by educating the citizens on how to properly plan a family and supply them with birth control. A possible punishment for having an extra child could be a fine that can go to support this project along with not giving the family any financial aid for the child. For those countries who would not be able to support such a project the World powers could help cover these costs, although expensive this solution has the possibility of increasing the life quality for not only humans but all the inhabitants on earth.

Hit song about Sept. 11 truly misses the mark essays

Hit song about Sept. 11 truly misses the mark essays Hit song about Sept. 11 truly misses the mark This article is the authors opinion about a controversial song written by Toby Keith in the days following the September 11th attacks on America. Julia Keller, the author, describes "Courtesy of the Red, White, and Blue (The Angry American) as "odious" as well as "a crude caricature of true American values, as it snarls with schoolyard braggadocio and bristles with taunts and threats and coarse language". She is saying that this song does nothing but reflect the same ideas as the people who committed the heinous acts of terror on September 11th. She compares the "silly, chest-thumping antics" to two other songs written about the same thing, just with a different tone. The songs "Where Were You (When the World Stopped Turning)" by Alan Jackson and "American Child" by Phil Vassar, received a glowing retort from Keller by saying these songs are "thoughtful" and "a starker contrast to Keiths macho bluster". She states, "Do we need to punish those responsible for Sept. 11? Of course. A nd were doing that . But the idea that the only legitimate response to that terrible day is to become as blind, bloodthirsty, and bombastic as the terrorists themselves the essence of Keiths song is insulting. Our nation seeks justice, not vengeance." Keith received much publicity when ABC decided not to feature the song on its Fourth of July special. "He got to act all dissed and outraged, and got himself booked on radio and TV shows to whine about it", Keller says. She believes it takes men and women of sincere courage to assimilate a tremendous blow like the events of September 11th, feel a surpassing grief, and then use those emotions as fuel to make wisdom. When I read this article I was dumbfounded. Apparently the author doesn't know what true patriotism and love for your country is. Nor does she know how the majority of the American public feels about the events that t ...

Is the College Board Mismanaging the AP Program

Is the College Board Mismanaging the AP Program SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips The College Board AP program is commonly viewed as the gold standard of curriculum for high school students. An AP class is meant to replicate the experience of an introductory college course, and high scores on AP exams can potentially lead to college credit. Students often take AP classes to impress colleges with their academic prowess in high school. But how is the program doing overall? Are students really benefiting that much? In this article, I'll discuss the College Board's management of the AP program over time and how its positive and negative aspects affect students nationwide. History of the AP Program The College Board AP program is now comprised of 38 courses that span a variety of different subject areas including the arts, sciences, math, world language and culture, English, and the humanities.The popularity of AP classes and exams has grown rapidly over time.Nearly 4.5 million AP tests were administered in 2015to 2.5 million students at 21,594 schools across the country.The program began in the 1950s following concerns about the transition between high school and college-level work. Several studies were conducted through the Fund for the Advancement of Education, which recommended that high schools and colleges work together to avoid repeating coursework and allow high school students to advance more quickly when appropriate.It was suggested that exams be administered that would give students the ability to earn college credit while still in high school. A study by a group called the Committee on Admission with Advanced Standing devised a plan for high schools to implement college-level curriculum in certain classes.Educators and administrators from colleges were recruited to help with the formulation of appropriate standards that colleges would deem acceptable as a basis for granting credit to high school students. The first AP pilot program began in 1952 with courses in 11 different subjects.In the school year of 1955-56, the College Board took over the administration of the program, and it was officially named the College Board Advanced Placement Program.In the 1960s, the College Board expanded the mission of the program to include teacher training for AP classes; many teachers responded well to this and felt it was a step forward for their careers. In the next couple of decades, more and more high schools began adding AP classes to their curriculum (over 5,000 schools by 1980).The College Board also added other parts to the AP program to help teachers standardize curriculum across grade levels and prepare younger students to take on high school and college, including Pre-AP and AP Vertical Teams. Now, AP courses and exams are considered to be the highest standard of secondary school education by most colleges. Students can generally earn college credit by scoring 3s, 4s, or5s on the exams, though the exact requirements vary byschool. I can't wait to go to the Sock Hop after my AP Test! The College Board's Management of the AP Program The goal of the AP program has always been to challenge advanced high school students and prepare them for college academics.This is a great idea, but the program is not without its flaws.I’ll go over a few of the issues with AP and its management by the College Board along with some positive steps the College Board has taken to improve the program. Positive Aspects of the College Board AP Program Over the years, the College Board has promoted favorable research studies on the AP program that show its effectiveness in helping students prepare for and succeed in college. In expanding the program to more and more schools, the College Boardaims to give all students who are academically prepared the ability to take college-level classes in high school, no matter their socioeconomic status. The College Board works to identify students who have the potential to succeed in AP courses and makes an effort to bring the program to their high schools to give them more opportunities. In its 10th Annual Report to the Nation on the AP program, the College Board cites research that has shown high AP scores to be reliable predictors of success in college. Students who score 3s or higher on AP exams tend to earn higher college GPAs, perform better in follow-up college courses in the same disciplines, and are more likely to graduate college within five years than students who don't take APs. The College Board has also taken positive steps to respond to feedback and improve courses that may need revamping. It continually collects data from universities to ensure that all courses include information that's in step with the latest research and reflects introductory college material. The design of the courses and exams is a collaboration between college faculty members and AP teachers. In the next couple of years, the College Board will implement changes to a number of AP subject areas including AP Calculus and AP World History. It also plans to add more courses to the AP program to expand its reach and give students more opportunities. The College Board is conscious of other issues with the program, including racial and socioeconomic achievement gaps. It has extensively documented states' progress in closing these gaps and has advised school districts on strategies to combat these issues, including reducing the financial burden of AP classes by lowering or eliminating fees for students who qualify, providing more support to AP teachers, establishing strong fundamentals in younger grades, and encouraging students who show potential to take AP classes. This is important to keep in mind while reading the next sections; though I will list some negatives of the program, the College Board is taking steps towards fixing many of its issues. The College Board is open to changes to the AP program to make it more effective. You'll get your way this time, sentient clouds. NegativeAspects of the College Board AP Program In recent years, somestudies have emerged that dispute the value of the AP program.Though the tests are consistent and do provide some value (especially in math and science subjects), the AP courses themselves lack consistency.Teacher training resources are loosely provided, but the methods and quality of teaching in AP classes are not standardized across the board. Most criticism of the AP program is aimed at itsrapid expansion into unprepared schools.The College Board’s goal is to get as many students to take AP classes and tests as possible, but the College Board's measures of student readiness are not always accurate, so this often leads to students taking classes that they can't handle. Pushing the AP program into more and more schools also costs millions in federal and state money, which goes towards subsidizing exam fees for low-income students and promoting the classes.With a large percentage of students failing the exams, thisinvestment of money and time is potentially very wasteful. The overall pass rate for AP exams in 2012 was only 57 percent, with 22 percent of exams earning 1s (the lowest possible score). The pressure to incorporate AP programs at low-income schools may cause these schools to make ill-advised decisions to bring in the programs at the expense of more basic student needs.A small subset of students may get a better educational experience, but it can lead to worse outcomes for other students not participating in the program. There is also little evidence to suggest that taking AP classes helps students to save money on college or graduate early.Few students will earn enough AP credits to cover a full semester of college, and many colleges only use AP scores to place students out of introductory courses without giving them actual credits.Evidence does point to greater success in college by students who take AP classes, but these students are also self-selected as the most driven and tend to attend wealthier high schools. It’s debatable the role that the AP program itself plays in student success when it’s combined with so many other factors.In certain studies, when these factors have been controlled for, the advantages supposedly conferred by AP classes completely disappear.The College Board's efforts to expand the AP program to disadvantaged students might be beneficial in theory, but in reality many schools could use help on improving their current curriculum before adding AP.Even at high-performing schools, the rush to take as many AP classes as possible for students’ transcripts has made these classes more of a symbolic marker of achievement than an important educational milestone. I’ll give more details on main criticisms of the program in the next section. If there's a shaky foundation, it's hard to succeed at a higher level. The AP Cairns curriculum has a lot of flaws. Biggest Criticisms of the AP Program Some criticisms of the AP program emerged in tandem with the immense growth in participating schools.With increased competition in college admissions, the merits of AP classes are a point of contention for educators at both the high school and college levels.I’ll give a basic rundown of the most common criticisms here. You can read more about these issues by consulting this article, which goes into greater detail on major problems with the AP Program. Criticism #1: Reinforcement of Education Inequality Students from wealthier school districts get better scores on AP tests because they are better prepared and have a better support system.Well-funded schools have more success at implementing AP programs overall.Since colleges often consider AP scores and students’ record of taking AP classes in the admission process, lower income students are put at even more of a disadvantage as the AP program continues to perpetuate existing inequalities. Althoughthe College Board is proud of its initiatives to bring AP classes to low-income schools, these schools have a hard time implementing AP programs effectively.Fewer students pass AP tests at low-income schools.All of this simply reinforces the current state of affairs in education; poor students fall farther behind, and wealthy students get farther ahead. If the AP Program really wants to help prepare all students for college academics, it may have to provide extra support to teachers and students in low-income schools.Some colleges have already stopped considering APs as a significant factor in admissions decisions partially because of these issues with unfairness and inconsistency in course quality. The AP program might make existing inequalities even more significant. Criticism #2: Superficial Learning Experiences AP classes cover a lotof ground in a short period of time, and some educators argue that this creates a surface-level exploration of each subject that doesn’t always teach students vital critical thinking skills.Many AP classes force students to do a lot of memorization, and they can't compete with the depth of real college courses. It's impossible for teachers to delve into a subject extensively when they have to cover so much material, so classes can end up just skimming over the tops of important concepts. This is partially an issue with the fundamental structure of classes, but it can sometimes be overcome through the influence of a great teacher at a well-funded school. Unfortunately, teaching quality and availability of resources is inconsistent. Even though the College Board has worked to emphasize hands-on learning and inquiry over drilling of facts, variableteacher capabilities and limited school resources can make thisswitch difficult.Underfunded schools may not have lab facilities that will accommodate new requirements in AP science classes.Teachers also may not be able to adapt easily to new methods of instruction if they don’t receive extensive training. While AP classes teach students many of the same facts that they would learn in an introductory college course, they have a ways to go in teaching analytical skills at the college level.As I mentioned above, there is now a rush amonghigh-achieving students to take as many AP classes as possible, which leads to further degradation of the learning experience. Students are stretching themselves too thin just to look good for elite colleges. Too much AP toast for a limited supply of brain peanut butter. Criticism #3: Program Growth and Achievement Growth Mismatch The AP program takes pride in its growth over the years, but the vast increase in the number of schools offering the program has come with a corresponding increase in failing test scores. Some critics arguethat the AP program has reached a point of â€Å"diminishing returns.† As AP programs expand rapidly, schools that don’t have as many resources struggle to keep pace. Many new AP programs at low-income schools lack the proper support and guidance, and this has led to more failing test scores.There are some schools where no student earns even a 3 on an AP test, the minimum qualifying score. This was the case at four high-poverty high schools in Washington, D.C. in 2013.Teachers are pushed into the program without proper training and resources, and, again, federal money is spent on introducing AP while neglecting more basic issues of educational inequality. The AP program has taken some wrong turns. Conclusion The AP program has been around since the 1950s, and in recent years it has expanded rapidly to administer millions of tests to students in high schools across the country.As the program has gained popularity, however, its effectiveness has been called into question.The College Board stands by the AP program, maintaining that it is the best way for advanced students to get a head start on college course material and bridge the academic gap between high school and college. While students who do well in AP classes also tend to perform well in college, this is could be the result of other corresponding factors.Students who take many APs are usually more driven overall, and they often attend well-funded high schools.Criticisms of the AP program include its reinforcement of the divide between rich and poor students in the college admissions process, the superficiality of its curriculum, and the increased test failure rates with the expansion of the program into more and more schools.It remains unclear how the AP program will change in the future, but if it continues to expand, hopefully the College Board will revise its curriculum and policies to help all students get more out of their AP experiences. What's Next? You've probably heard about both AP exams and SAT Subject Tests, but you might not know the exact differences between the two. Read this article to find out which type of test is more important for your college applications. Are you still planning out your schedule for upcoming school years? Learn how to register for AP tests and classes at your high school. If you're unsure whether the AP program is a worthwhile use of your time, check out this guide to learn if you should really take AP classes. Want to improve your SAT score by 240 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Employment Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Employment Law - Essay Example Accidents and disease are the leading causes of disability and they are the major contributors to work related problems. Disability has been identified as a major cause of discrimination in the work place, and not only in the United States (US) but all over the world. Denial of employment opportunities on the basis of disability is a major cause for concern which led to the formulation of various legislations to protect employment opportunities for the disabled. This falls under various anti-discrimination laws that were instigated by the Civil Rights Act of 1964. This act set the precedent for the formulation of various laws that protect individuals against discrimination based on disability, gender and a myriad of other factors that are causes of discrimination in the work place. This paper seeks to highlight, through the IRAC (Issue, Rule, Application and Conclusion) method of analysis, discrimination in the work place presented by two separate cases. Issue: John worked for XYZ Mo tor Company for 10 years before he developed a back problem that led to surgery to deal with the problem and relieve his pain. The company allows for a 30 day sick leave, which in John’s case proved to be an inadequate period for him to fully recover. He was forced by circumstances to return to work before fully getting healed to avoid the risk of being fired. His request for additional days off as recommended by his doctor was denied by his supervisor, which contributed to the deterioration of his back problem, work quantity and quality. Barry who is John’s supervisor taunts John and encourages other employees to treatment him badly because of his condition. This ultimately leads to the breakdown of John’s morale and he misses work for three consecutive days, which causes his firing under the company’s attendance policy. John has been fired from his job for three consecutive days of absenteeism at work, an issue that was instigated the treatment he got f rom the work place due to his condition. This leads to the question of whether John’s treatment at his work place was lawful, and whether there are laws that protect individuals from such circumstances. Rule: The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) is a US government agency that is tasked with enforcing federal employment discrimination laws. The EEOC enforces laws that are meant to protect individuals from discrimination based on gender, disability, sex, national origin, religion, age, race and color(Rothstein & Liebman 78). Disability discrimination in the work place occurs when the employer or other entities as covered by the Americans with Disability Act (ADA) treats a qualified candidate who is an employee or job applicant unfavorably because of their disability. The Law requires that an employer provide appropriate and reasonable accommodation to an employee or job applicant as long as it does not cause significant difficulty or expense for the employer (Roth stein & Liebman 48). The law also forbids discrimination in any aspect of employment that includes firing, hiring, pay, promotions, layoff, training, fringe benefits and job assignments. The disability discrimination and harassment law makes it illegal for some one to be subjected to severe offensive remarks due to their disability that creates a hostile work environment leading to adverse employment decisions like being fired and demotion (Rothstein & Liebman 58). John’s case presents a case where multiple laws were broken according to the legislations that are enforced by the EEOC and the rights that fall under the ADA. Application: Barry who was John’s supervisor represented the XYZ Motor Company and its policies, which means that the company as a whole should bear the responsibility of the

Produce a bid document for Beijing,China towards The 2018 Youth Essay

Produce a bid document for Beijing,China towards The 2018 Youth Olympic Games - Essay Example It presents into a full glare, the spicy hot port on lantern-lit ghost streets that live every individual mesmerized. As a bid document for Beijing, China towards The 2018 Youth Olympic Games, this paper justifies the countries capability in hosting the games. This capital city is China’s political, economic, cultural and transportation center covering an area of 16,800 square kilometers. The city is characterized by a semi-humid continental climate, which will make the country a daze of excitement for the visiting participants of the 2018 Youth Olympic Games (Xu, 2008:198). The entire nation welcomes the chance to host these forthcoming games and the world will be opened to see the numerous palaces, imperial gardens, temples, pagodas, stone carvings, and captivating chronological sites. China has grown to become one of the super powers the world is taking pleasure in. With its deep-seated technology and the good international relations, the country’s economy pledges a full support in hosting this prestigious world sports. The country has sustainable and reliable services, which gives a guarantee to establishing the necessary facilities. The infrastructural ad architectural designs are best suited to meet the international standards of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). After the country’s stable economy successfully sustained the previous 2008 Olympics, the country has shown maturation. The economic is unwavering and the ongoing indoor preparations are true picture of how the country is ready (Alexandre and Mendes, 2011:3). The government fully pledges support. It is in good faith that the government will want present a prospect to the entire the human race how democratic, refined, open, responsive, and harmonious it is. The government guarantees universal human rights. The word of honor assures the world freedom of movement, thought, conscience, assembly, religion, association and access to information elaborates the

Macbeth as an Archetype of the Devil :: essays research papers

In the tragic play of Macbeth, Shakespeare creates a protagonist that resembles the archetype of the devil. With Satan, leader of the forces of evil, and the Dragon, or rebel against God, from the Bible and John Milton's epic allegory Paradise Lost, these roles fit as archetypes for the protagonist, Macbeth. There is also significant ways in which Shakespeare contrasted his protagonist against the Devil. Macbeth and Satan are characterized for being great and powerful, above the normal man or angel. 'For brave Macbeth ' well he deserves that name Disdaining Fortune, with his brandished steel? from Macbeth (I, ii, 16-17).The two character relates to each other for their loyalty and trust, which acknowledged them with great honor and power to make changes, whether good or bad. 'Say first for Heaven hides nothing from thy view Nor the deep Tract of Hell say first what cause Mov'd our Grand Parents in that happy state, Favour'd of heav'n so highly ' He trusted to have equal'd the most High' (I, 27-40). Once given a high position, they begin to desire more power, to become God, to become King. 'I will ascend above the heights of the Clouds, I will be like the most High' (Isaiah, 14: 14). The devil, seen as the Dragon, who rebels against God, betrays God and fights against those who goes any challengers. 'And there appeared another wonder in Heaven, and behold a great red dragon having seven heads and ten horns, and seven crowns upon his heads.' (Revelation, 12: 3) 'And there was war in heaven: Michael and his angels fought against the dragon, and the dragon fought his angels,' (Revelation, 12: 7). Macbeth, does the same thing as the dragon, he rebels against the king, and tries to kill anyone who can get in his way. ?With his surcease, success that but his blow Might be the be ? all and the end ? all here ? Bloody instructions, which, being taught, return To plague th? inventor, this even ? handed justice.? From Macbeth (I, vii, 4-10) Shakespeare cleverly added incomparable differences in his protagonist and the Devil. The characters may desire the same thing, but have alternative ways of doing things. For example, Satan is the leader of forces of evil, which means he is the one who has tempted others into following him. ?Had cast him out of heav?n, with all his Host Of Rebel Angels, by whose aid aspiring To set himself in Glory above his Peers ?

Looking Glass Essay

Socialization is a sociological approach that attempts to explain how people learn cultural morals and the responses and emotions that differentiate us from animals that are driven merely by the drive to survive and reproduce. Socialization starts from the assumption that humans are more than animals that do whatever it takes to survive. Instead humans recognize that they are part of a group, and they observe other humans for guiding cues on how they should respond. When a baby is born it observes its mother to learn how emotions work and what the proper response to different events should be. Gradually as the child learns that it is a separate being from its mother and other humans it learns to think about its own reactions and responses and how they differ from those of other people. In this stage the child may deliberately test things out by trying a different response than the one approved by other people. Eventually, the child settles into a pattern of being able to regulate their own responses and empathize with what others want and how they respond. In this way socialization is a careful dance in which the developing human learns to balance their own independent desires and responses with those of t he people around them. George Herbet Mead Mead contributed to the concept of socialization by exploring how significant other people around a person affect that person. He showed socialization as a dialectical, or reasoning, process in which the human may have to decide between their own personal desires and those of the group around them. Mead also contributed greatly to the method of studying socialization by showing that verbal communication isn’t the only way people socialize each other. Instead nonverbal, symbolic communication is even more important. Mead’s work in showing the importance of nonverbal, symbolic communication has tremendous application for sociologists and psychologists. Also once a person is conscience of the nonverbal communication that people use they are able to notice a lot of things that other people don’t. This can lead to them being better managers, leaders, etc. Charles Cooley Cooley contributed to the concept of socialization by developing the â€Å"looking glass self† theory. This theory explains socialization as a reflection process in which a person develops a self-image that is constructed based on how other people view him/her. In this way a person is socialized by trying to adjust their self-image. Cooley’s work was probably the basis for labeling theory. It helps explain why in some cases people develop a negative self image that causes them to become worse, not better. Some people can’t reconcile their self-image with the desired self-image and once they label themselves as criminals, or drug users, etc they find it even harder to leave those patterns. The â€Å"looking glass self† theory could be used to help rehabilitate convicted felons and criminals by developing a better socialization process for such ones. John Bowlby Bowlby contributed greatly to the concept of socialization by exploring the manner in which children learn from their mothers. He described the early stages of socialization by analyzing the way mothers and babies communicated symbolically with eye dilations and facial expressions. The mother uses this symbolic communication to teach her child how to respond to threats and stresses by showing the emotion that the baby should and does imitate. Bowlby’s work has practical application in showing why children should spend as much time as possible with their mothers or with a mother figure during their early years. It explains why orphaned babies often don’t do as well emotionally if they don’t have someone to pick them up and teach them these responses through interaction. Bowlby’s work is also important because it suggests that single parent families where the mother must go off to work are a major disadvantage for the children as they don’t get as much of a chance to interact with their mother and learn those responses as they  should. Symbolic interaction and the looking-glass self In hypothesizing the framework for the looking glass self, Cooley said, â€Å"the mind is mental† because â€Å"the human mind is social.† Beginning as children, humans begin to define themselves within the context of their socializations. The child learns that the symbol of his/her crying will elicit a response from his/her parents, not only when they are in need of necessities such as food, but also as a symbol to receive their attention. Schubert references in Cooley’s On Self and Social Organization, â€Å"a growing solidarity between mother and child parallels the child’s increasing competence in using significant symbols. This simultaneous development is itself a necessary prerequisite for the child’s ability to adopt the perspectives of other participants in social relationships and, thus, for the child’s capacity to develop a social self.† The words â€Å"good† or â€Å"bad† only hold relevance after one learns th e connotation and societal meaning of the words. George Herbert Mead described self as â€Å"taking the role of the other,† the premise for which the self is actualized. Through interaction with others, we begin to develop an identity about who we are, as well as empathy for others. This is the notion of, ‘Do unto others, as you would have them do unto you.’ In respect to this Cooley said, â€Å"The thing that moves us to pride or shame is not the mere mechanical reflection of ourselves, but an imputed sentiment, the imagined effect of this reflection upon another’s mind.† (Cooley 1964) [edit] Three main components of the looking-glass self.  There are three main components of the looking-glass self (Yeung, et al. 2003). 1. We imagine how we must appear to others. 2. We imagine the judgement of that appearance. 3. We develop our self through the judgments of others. Studies of the looking-glass self The term â€Å"looking-glass self† was coined by Cooley after extensive psychological testing in 1902, although more recent studies have been published. In 1976 Arthur L Beaman, Edward Diener, and Soren Svanum (1979) performed an experiment on the Looking-Glass Self’s effect on children.  Another study in the Journal of Family Psychology in 1998, measured the validity of the looking glass self and symbolic interaction in the context of familial relationships. Self reflection study On Halloween night, 363 children trick-or-treated at 18 different homes in Seattle, Washington. Each of these 18 homes was selected to take part in the experiment and was in turn arranged in similar ways. In a room near the entry way there was a low table and on it was a large bowl full of bite sized candy. A festive backdrop was also placed in sight of the candy bowl with a small hole for viewing; behind the backdrop was an observer who would record the results of the experiment. The experiment was conducted in the same way at each of the 18 different homes, with each home conducting two different conditions of the experiment, self-awareness manipulation and individuation manipulation. All of the homes conducted both conditions; half of the homes conducting self-awareness manipulation while the other half conducted individuation manipulation. In each of the conditions a woman would answer the door commenting on the children’s costumes and inviting them in. She would then inst ruct the children to take only one piece of candy from the bowl and excuse herself to another room. Self-awareness manipulation Self-awareness manipulation was the first of 2 conditions performed in Beaman, Diener, and Svanum’s experiment. The self-awareness manipulation condition was performed with a mirror placed at a ninety degree angle directly behind the entry-way table fifty percent of the time. The mirror was placed in such a way that the children could always see their reflection in the mirror when taking candy from the bowl; the other half of the time there was no mirror in place and the children were left anonymous. Individuation manipulation There was some concern that the children involved in the study would only see their Halloween costumes and not their own self reflections, so a second condition was performed in Beaman, Diener, and Svanum’s experiment. This second condition was called individuation manipulation. The individuation manipulation condition was performed in the same way as the self-awareness  manipulation. After greeting the children the woman at the door would ask each of the children their name and where he or she lived. These questions were asked in such a way that the children would think nothing of it because many other homes asked the children their names on Halloween night; however, no effort was made to identify the children involved. Just as in the first condition, a mirror was used half of the time and was removed for the other half of the experiment. Results The children involved in the experiment were split into several different categories based on the results of the experiment. The criteria consisted of age, group size, and gender. Out of the 363 children involved in the study, 70 children transgressed when instructed not to. Children who arrived in groups were more likely to transgress than those children who arrived alone; 20.4% to 10.3% respectively. Children arriving with adults were not included in the study. Gender The genders of those who participated in the study were recorded by the unobtrusive viewer from behind the festive backdrop. Out of the 363 children, only 326 children’s genders could be determined because they were wearing Halloween costumes. Of those children whose genders could be determined there were 190 boys and 136 girls. While Cooley suggests that girls have a far higher impressionable social sensibility it was not the case in this study, as boys transgressed more often than girls. More boys transgressed with the mirror present, than without; 35.8% to 15.6%. This was the same for girls; 13.2% to 8.4%. Age While the exact age of each child could not be determined due to the children’s anonymity, approximate ages were given to each child by the unobtrusive observer. The average age of the children was eight years old. The results of the study were split up into different categories based on the approximate age given to each child. The age groups were as follows: ages 1-4, 5-8, 9-12 and 13 or older. The rate of transgression rose with the age of the child; the 1-4 year olds had a rate of transgression of only 6.5% while the 5-8 year olds transgressed 9.7% of the time. The two older age groups transgressed far more often than the younger groups; children aged 9-12 transgressed 23.6% of the time while the children aged 13 and older had a rate of transgression of 41.9%. Family study of the looking glass self The research article was included in the Journal of Family Psychology in 1998. The researchers, Cook and Douglas, measured the validity of the looking glass self and symbolic interaction in the context of familial relationships. The study analyzed the accuracy of a college student’s and an adolescent’s perceptions of how they are perceived by their parents. The 51 participants of this study included four family members (mother, father, college student and adolescent) who returned surveys. The families were primarily white and middle class. The college student and adolescent were paid ten dollars each, if each family member completed the survey. Three areas were investigated: assertiveness, firmness, and cooperation. In reference to the three areas respondents were asked the following: how they behave toward the target, how the target behaves toward them, and how they think they are viewed by the target. The study identified the looking glass self as a â€Å"metapercept ion† because it involves â€Å"perception of perceptions.† One of the hypotheses tested in the study was: If â€Å"metaperceptions† cause self-perceptions they will necessarily be coordinated. The hypothesis was tested at the individual and relationship levels of analysis. Findings of the familial study The study determined that the hypothesis is strongly supported at the individual level for cooperation for both college students and adolescents, but is only partially supported for assertiveness for college students. Also for college students, at the relationship level with their mothers the study supported assertiveness. There was an irregular finding regarding firmness in the mother-adolescent relationship that indicated that the firmer adolescents were perceived by their mothers, the less firm they rated themselves in the relationship. While there was not strong support of the hypothesis on the relationship level, on the individual level the findings suggest that how college students and adolescents think about themselves is directly correlated to how they think they are perceived by their parents. Looking glass self in contemporary society Using computer technology, people can create an avatar, a customized symbol which represents the computer user. For example, in the virtual world Second Life the computer-user can create a humanlike avatar that reflects the user in regard to race, age, physical makeup, status and the like. By selecting certain physical characteristics or symbols, the avatar reflects how the creator seeks to be perceived in the virtual world and how the symbols used in the creation of the avatar influence others’ actions toward the computer-user. See also Symbolic interactionism Notes 1. ^ The term is sometimes hyphenated in the literature, sometimes not. Compare, for example, the titles of Shaffer (2005) and Yeung & Martin (2003), below. 2. ^ From Charles Horton Cooley, Human Nature and the Social Order, New York: Scribner’s, 1902, pp. 152: â€Å"In a very large and interesting class of cases the social reference takes the form of a somewhat definite imagination of how one’s self–that is any idea he appropriates–appears in a particular mind, and the kind of self-feeling one has is determined by the attitude toward this attributed to that other mind. A social self of this sort might be called the reflected or looking glass self: ‘Each to each a looking-glass Reflects the other that doth pass.’ As we see our face, figure, and dress in the glass, and are interested in them because they are ours, and pleased or otherwise with them according as they do or do not answer to what we should like them to be; so in imagination we pe rceive in another’s mind some thought of our appearance, manners, aims, deeds, character, friends, and so on, and are variously affected by it.† References Beaman, Arthur L., Diener, Edward, and Klentz, Bonnel. â€Å"Self-Awareness and Transgression in Children: Two Field Studies.† Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37 (1979): 1835-1846. Cooley, Charles H. Human Nature and the Social Order. New York: Scribner’s, 1902. Confer pp. 183-184 for first use of the term â€Å"looking glass self†. Cooley, Charles H. On Self and Social Organization. Ed. Schubert Hans-Joachim. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998. ISBN 0226115097. (pp. 20-22) Cook, William L., and Douglas, Emily M. â€Å"The Looking Glass Self in Family Context: A Social Relations Analysis.† Journal of Family Psychology 12, no. 3 (1998): 299-309. Coser, Lewis A., Masters of Sociological Thought : Ideas in Historical and Social Context, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1971. ISB N0155551280. He has a http://web.archive.org/web/20070814013608/www2.pfeiffer.edu/~lridener/DSS/Cooley/COOLWRK.HTML chapter] on Cooley and the Looking Glass Self. Hensley, Wayne. â€Å"A Theory of the Valenced Other: The Intersection of the Looking-Glass-Self and Social Penetration.† Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal 24, no. 3 (1996): 293-308. McIntyre, Lisa. The Practical Skeptic: Core Concepts in Sociology. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 2006. ISBN 0072885246. Shaffer, Leigh. â€Å"From Mirror Self-Recognition to the Looking-Glass Self: Exploring the Justification Hypothesis.† Journal of Cl inical Psychology 61 (January 2005): 47-65. Starks, Rodney. Sociology. 10th ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2007. ISBN 0495093440. (pp. 73-75) Yeung, King-To, and Martin, John Levi. â€Å"The Looking Glass Self: An Empirical Test and Elaboration.† Social Forces 81, no. 3 (2003): 843-879. Sociology – Cooley’s â€Å"The Looking Glass Self† Symbolic Interactionism, Sociological Theory, Charles Cooley Share Article | Jul 9, 2009 Nicholas Morine The looking-glass self is a popular theory within the sociological field known as symbolic interactionism. It explains a formation of self-image via reflection. Amongst prominent symbolic interaction sociologists, Charles Cooley stands out as an historic contributor to the field in the sense that he coined one of the largest theories applicable within it – the theory of â€Å"the looking glass self.† What is meant by this statement is a notion that, even as infants, human beings form their very selves from the reflections and responses gained by their earliest behaviours visited upon the â€Å"other,† or any participant in one’s earliest socialization. Three Main Components of The Looking Glass Self The rudiments of Cooley’s sociological theory can be reduced to three facets. One imagines how they appear to others.One imagines the judgment that others may be making regarding that appearance. One develops a self-image via their reflection; that is, the judgments or critique of others. There are not many among the general population who do not imagine how they must look to others, how their actions must look to those observing, and finally – changing themselves or perhaps rebelling against change due to the judgments of others they interact with. A large portion of personalities are determined by the reactions to appearance, speech, beliefs, actions, and so on. The reflections, or impressions, that people gain from other people in society are formative in nature – from the look on a doting mother’s face to that of a stern father when one has stolen a cookie from the jar – human beings are influenced by the exchange of symbols, and from the reacti ons one gains from those exchanges, from early infancy. Ads by Google Careers In Sociology Get your degree online faster than you think. Financial Aid Available. www.University-College.com Sociology Major College Bachelor’s Degree in Sociology from American Public University. www.APUS.edu Understanding â€Å"The Looking Glass Self†, Symbolic Interactionism The looking glass self is directly related to self-awareness; indeed, self-awareness may be said to be formed via the process of undergoing the process coined by Cooley. The concept is somewhat related to the psychological concept of projection; human beings interpret the reactions of others that they socialize with in regards to appearance, speech, mannerisms (all symbols) and project these interpretations unto themselves. One’s self-awareness is thus heavily influenced by these social responses, and to some degree persons become reflections of what they see projected unto them by others – a summation of the symbolic interactions and exchanges between their selves and â€Å"the other.† When people receive a negative or condescending response to  their appearance from a variety of persons they might socialize with, they might begin to view themselves as less physically attractive or app ealing. When they receive a positive or encouraging response to jokes or comedy, they become more apt to engage in these social behaviours or to take pride in their verbal skills. In this way, people are directly moulded, influenced, and in some cases entirely built up around the reflections of themselves that they see in others. The medium used to express these feelings, especially in the earliest stages of development, is the realm of symbolic interaction. Not all cues are verbal, but a simple frown, snort of disdain, or look of amusement are all symbols which bear greater social meanings. Consider Cooley’s Words and Theory, â€Å"On Self and Social Organization† In order to understand this more deeply, one might lastly consider the following statement from Cooley’s On Self and Social Organization : â€Å"The thing that moves us to pride or shame is not the mere mechanical reflection of ourselves, but an imputed sentiment, the imagined effect of this reflecti on upon another’s mind.† Read more at Suite101: Sociology – Cooley’s â€Å"The Looking Glass Self†: Symbolic Interactionism, Sociological Theory, Charles Cooley http://political-philosophy.suite101.com/article.cfm/sociology_cooleys_the_looking_glass_self#ixzz0lW6kCgkr From Charles Horton Cooley, Human Nature and the SocialOrder. New York: Scribner’s, 1902, pp. 179-185. Charles Horton Cooley The Looking-Glass Self The social self is simply any idea, or system of ideas, drawn fromthe communicative life, that the mind cherishes as its own.Self-feeling has its chief scope within the general life, notoutside of it; the special endeavor or tendency of which it is theemotional aspect finds its principal field of exercise in a world ofpersonal forces, reflected in the mind by a world of personalimpressions. As connected with the thought of other persons the self idea isalways a consciousness of the peculiar or differentiated aspect  ofone’s life, because that is the aspect that has to be sustained bypurpose and endeavor, and its more aggressive forms tend to attachthemselves to whatever one finds to be at once congenial to one’s owntendencies and at variance with those of others with whom one is inmental contact. It is here that they are most needed to serve theirfunction of stimulating characteristic activity, of fostering thosepersonal variations which the general plan of life seems to require.Heaven, says Shakespeare, doth divide â€Å"The state of man in divers functions,  betting endeavor in continual motion,†Ã‚  and self-feeling is one of the means by which this diversity isachieved. Agreeably to this view we find that the aggressive self manifestsitself most conspicuously in an appropriativeness of objects ofcommon desire, corresponding to the individuals need of power oversuch objects to secure his own peculiar development, and to thedanger of opposition from others who also need them. And this extendsfrom material objects to lay hold, in the same spirit, of theattentions and affections of other people, of all sorts of plans andambitions, including the noblest special purposes the mind canentertain, and indeed of any conceivable idea which may come to seema part of one’s life and in need of assertion against some one else.The attempt to limit the word self and its derivatives to the loweraims of personality is quite arbitrary; at variance with common senseas expressed by the emphatic use of â€Å"I† in connection with the senseof duty and other high motives, and unphilosophical as ignoring thefunction of the self as the organ of specialized endeavor of higheras well as lower kinds. That the â€Å"I† of common speech has a meaning which includes somesort of reference to other persons is involved in the very fact thatthe word and the ideas it stands for are phenomena of language andthe communicative life. It is doubtful whether it is possible to uselanguage at all without thinking more or less distinctly of some oneelse, and certainly the things to which we give names and which havea large place in reflective thought are almost always those which areimpressed upon us by our contact with other people. Where there is nocommunication there can be no nomenclature and no developed thought.What we call â€Å"me,† â€Å"mine,† or â€Å"myself† is, then, not somethingseparate from the genera l life, but the most interesting part of it,a part whose interest  arises from the very fact that it is bothgeneral and individual. That is, we care for it just because it isthat phase of the mind that is living and striving in the commonlife, trying to impress itself upon the minds of others. â€Å"I† is amilitant social tendency, working to hold and enlarge its place inthe general current of tendencies. So far as it can it waxes, as alllife does. To think of it as apart from society is a palpableabsurdity of which no one could be guilty who really saw it as a factof life. â€Å"Der Mensch erkennt sich nur im Menschen, nur  Das Leben lehret jedem was er sei.† * If a thing has no relation to others of which one is conscious heis unlikely to think of it at all, and if he does think of it hecannot, it seems to me, regard it as emphatically his. Theappropriative sense is always the shadow, as it were, of the commonlife, and when we have it we have a sense of the latter in connectionwith it. Thus, if we think of a secluded part of the woods as â€Å"ours,†it is because we think, also, that others do not go there. As regardsthe body I doubt if we have a vivid my-feeling about any part of itwhich is not thought of, however vaguely, as having some actual orpossible reference to some one else. Intense self-consciousnessregarding it arises along with instincts or experiences which connectit with the thought of others. Internal organs, like the liver, arenot thought of as peculiarly ours unless we are trying to communicatesomething regarding them, as, for instance, when they are giving ustrouble and we are trying to get sympathy. â€Å"I,† then, is not all of the mind, but a peculiarly central,vigorous, and well-knit portion of it, not separate from the rest butgradually merging into it, and yet having a certain practicaldistinctness, so that a man generally shows clearly enough by hislanguage and behavior what his â€Å"I† is as distinguished from thoughtshe does not appropriate. It may be thought of, as already suggested,under the analogy of a central colored area on a lighted wall. Itmight also, and perhaps more justly, be compared to the nucleus of aliving cell, not altogether separate from the surrounding matter, outof which indeed it is formed, but more active and definitelyorganized. The reference to other persons involved in the sense of self maybe distinct and particular, as when a boy is ashamed to have hismother catch him at something she has forbidden, or it may be vagueand  general, as when one is ashamed to do something which only hisconscience, expressing his sense of social responsibility, detectsand disapproves; but it is always there. There is no sense of â€Å"I,† asin pride or shame, without its correlative sense of you, or he, orthey. Even the miser gloating over his hidden gold can feel the†mine† only as he is aware of the world of men over whom he hassecret power; and the case is very similar with all kinds of hidtreasure. Many painters, sculptors, and writers have loved towithhold their work from the world, fondling it in seclusion untilthey were quite done with it; but the delight in this, as in allsecrets, depends upon a sense of the value of what is concealed. I remarked above that we think of the body as â€Å"I† when it comes tohave social function or significance, as when we say â€Å"I am lookingwell to-day,† or â€Å"I am taller than you are.† We bring it into thesocial world, for the time being, and for that reason put ourself-consciousness into it. Now it is curious, though natural, thatin precisely the same wa y we may call any inanimate object â€Å"I† withwhich we are identifying our will and purpose. This is notable ingames, like golf or croquet, where the ball is the embodiment of theplayer’s fortunes. You will hear a man say, â€Å"I am in the long grassdown by the third tee,† or â€Å"I am in position for the middle arch.† Soa boy flying a kite will say â€Å"I am higher than you,† or one shootingat a mark will declare that he is just below the bullseye. In a very large and interesting class of cases the socialreference takes the form of a somewhat definite imagination of howone’s self–that is any idea he appropriates–appears in a particularmind, and the kind of self-feeling one has is determined by theattitude toward this attributed to that other mind. A social self ofthis sort might be called the reflected or looking glass self: â€Å"Each to each a looking-glass  Reflects the other that doth pass.† As we see our face, figure, and dress in the glass, and areinterested in them because they are ours, and pleased or otherwisewith them according as they do or do not answer to what we shouldlike them to be; so in imagination we perceive in another’s mind somethought of our appearance, manners, aims, deeds, character, friends,and so on, and are variously affected by it. A self-idea of this sort seems to have three principal element:the imagination of our appearance to the other person; theimagination of his judgment of  that appearance, and some sort ofself-feeling, such as pride or mortification. The comparison with alooking-glass hardly suggests the second element, the imaginedjudgment, which is quite essential. The thing that moves us to prideor shame is not the mere mechanical reflection of ourselves, but animputed sentiment, the imagined effect of this reflection uponanother’s mind. This is evident from the fact that the character andfreight of that other, in whos e mind we see ourselves, makes all thedifference with our feeling. We are ashamed to seem evasive in thepresence of a straightforward man, cowardly in the presence of abrave one, gross in the eyes of a refined one, and so on. We alwaysimagine, and in imagining share, the judgments of the other mind. Aman will boast to one person of an action–say some sharp transactionin trade–which he would be ashamed to own to another. It should be evident that the ideas that are associated withself-feeling and form the intellectual content of the self cannot becovered by any simple description, as by saying that the body hassuch a part in it, friends such a part, plans so much, etc., but willvary indefinitely with particular temperaments and environments. Thetendency of the self, like every aspect of personality, is expressiveof far-reaching hereditary and social factors, and is not to beunderstood or predicted except in connection with the general life.Although special, it is in no way separate–speciality andseparateness are not only different but contradictory, since theformer implies connection with a whole. The object of self-feeling isaffected by the general course of history, by the particulardevelopment of nations, classes, and professions, and otherconditions of this sort. * â€Å"Only in man does man know himself; life alone teaches each onewhat he is.† Goethe, Tasso, act 2, sc. 3. Charles Horton Cooley The Work â€Å"Self and society,† wrote Cooley, â€Å"are twin-born.† This emphasis onthe organic link and the indissoluble connection between self and society isthe theme of most of Cooley’s writings and remains the crucial contributionhe made to modern social psychology and sociology. The Looking Glass Self  Building upon the work of William James, Cooley opposed the Cartesiantradition that posited a sharp disjunction between the knowing, thinking sub-ject and the external world. The objects of the social world, Cooley taught, areconstitutive parts of the subject’s mind and the self. Cooley wished to removethe conceptual barrier that Cartesian thought had erected between the indi-vidual and his society and to stress, instead, their interpenetration. â€Å"A separateindividual,† he wrote, is an abstraction unknown to experience, and so likewise is society when re-garded as something apart from individuals. . . .† Society† and â€Å"individual s†do not denote separable phenomena but are simply collective and distributiveaspects of the same thing. . . When we speak of society, or use any othercollective term, we fix our minds upon some general view of the people con-cerned, while when we speak of individuals we disregard the general aspectand think of them as if they were separate Cooley argued that a person’s self grows out of a person’s commerce withothers. â€Å"The social origin of his life comes by the pathway of intercourse withother persons.† The self, to Cooley, is not first individual and then social; itarises dialectically through communication. One’s consciousness of himself isa reflection of the ideas about himself that he attributes to other minds; thus,there can be no isolated selves. â€Å"There is no sense of ‘I’ without its cor-relative sense of you, or he, or they. † In his attempt to illustrate the reflected character of the self, Cooleycompared it to a looking glass: Each to each a looking-glass  Reflects the other that doth pass. â€Å"As we see our face, figure, and dress in the glass, and are interested in thembecause they are ours, and pleased or otherwise with them according as theydo or do not answer to what we should like them to be, so in imagination weperceive in another’s mind some thought of our appearance, manners, aims,deeds, character, friends, and so on, and are variously affected by it.† The notion of the looking-glass self is composed of three principal ele-ments: â€Å"The imagination of our appearance to the other person, the imagina-tion of his judgment of that appearance, and some sort of self-feeling, such aspride or mortification.† The self arises in a social process of communicativeinterchange as it is reflected in a person’s  consciousness. As George H. Meadput it when discussing Cooley’s contribution, â€Å"By placing both phases of thissocial process in the same consciousness, by regarding the self as the ideasentertained by others of the self, a nd the other as the ideas entertained of himby the self, the action of the others upon the self and of the self upon theothers becomes simply the interaction of ideas upon each other within mind.† This somewhat abstract notion can be illustrated by a delightful examplewhich Cooley gave himself when he imagined an encounter between Alice,who has a new hat, and Angela, who just bought a new dress. He argues thatwe then have, I) The real Alice, known only to her maker. 2) Her idea of herself; e.g. â€Å"I[Alice] look well in this hat.† 3) Her idea of Angela’s idea of her; e.g.†Angela thinks I look well in this hat.† 4) Her idea of what Angela thinksshe thinks of herself: e.g. â€Å"Angela thinks I am proud of my looks in thishat.† 5) Angela’s idea of what Alice thinks of herself; e.g. â€Å"Alice thinks sheis stunning in that hat.† And of course six analogous phases of Angela andher dress. â€Å"Society,† Cooley adds, â€Å"i s an interweaving and interworking of mental selves.I imagine your mind, and especially what your mind thinks about my mind,and what your mind thinks about what my mind thinks about your mind. Idress my mind before yours and expect that you will dress yours before mine.Whoever cannot or will not perform these feats is not properly in the game.†Multiple perspectives are brought into congruence through continued multi-lateral exchanges of impressions and evaluations between our minds and thoseof others. Society is internalized in the individual psyche; it becomes part ofthe individual self through the interaction of many; individuals, which linksand fuses them into an organic whole. From Coser, 1977:305-307. Looking good, feeling fit: the relationship between body image and self-esteem This is a coursework site which you can investigate yourself but before you do, you need to be clear about some of the ideas around this topic. Some good links in left-hand margin, to help with the research for your coursework and hints for fieldwork here. Self image – some exercises and suggestions for fieldwork, for your coursework Self esteem Self Presentation Hints for Unit 2 Coursework Try the exercises below and keep your notes for your coursework. Self image In order to gain an idea of your own self image, ask yourself the following questions: What do you do well? What do you do badly? What is your strongest feeling? What is your strongest belief? What is your strongest desire? What is your oldest memory? What is your most shameful lie? What has been your greatest triumph? What has been your most wretched disaster? Who do you love? Who do you hate? Who do you like? Who do you dislike? Are you too tall or too short? Are you too thin or too fat? Are you too clever or too stupid? Who would you like to be? You will find that the responses to these questions fall into certain categories or aspects – emotional, physical and intellectual attributes (qualities or characteristics). These are the things that make up our self image. BACK TO THE TOP Ideal Self Look at your answers to the questions again. Depending on how truthfully you have answered, you may have a picture of your self which is realistic or possibly, your ideal self. Your ideal self is the perfect version of you, physically, intellectually and emotionally. We usually have three versions of ourselves in our heads at any one time, a realistic view of ourselves, an  ideal version which we try to live up to and a looking glass self (Cooley) – this is a version of ourselves that we have reflected back at us by other people, in the way they react to us. For example, we could have an ideal self where we are very kind people but the way people react to us suggests that that is not how other people see us. ACTIVITY Choose a recent digital photograph of yourself – a full length one, preferably. Use your picture editor to distort the picture as I have done below. Which one do you prefer? The third image is the true image. My ideal self would be picture three with slightly slimmer thighs! I have been all of these shapes but was a teenager when the very thin picture 2 – this was my natural shape then. Where do we get our mental image of what our ideal body shape should be? Listen to Sarah talking about the negative comments she gets about being naturally thin. Sources range from our parents, our peers and the media. Here are some possible role models for males and females. Females Males BACK TO THE TOP Suggestions for fieldwork Collect some images of different people with different body shapes – both male and female. Show them to an equal number of males and females, in three different age brackets. 1. Ask them to choose an occupation for each person – give them a selection of high status occupations, middle-ranking occuptions and low status occupations e.g pop star, film star, surgeon, politician, teacher, shop assistant, student, housewife etc. 2. Ask them to match a set of personality characteristics to each picture – give them a range such as out-going, cheerful, mean, bad-tempered, boring etc. 3. Ask them to rank the pictures in order starting with the image they would most like to be like and ending with the one they would least like to be like themselves. Self Esteem Self esteem is how we value ourselves or judge ourselves. Try this exercise to see how you rate yourself. Give yourself a score out of 10 for the following qualities: Patience Honesty Generosity Attractiveness Intelligence Kindness Popularity Creativity Wisdom Maturity Add up your scores and work out the average by dividing your total by 10. Compare your average score with other people in the group. Any surprises? Try this Internet on-line self esteem quiz http://www.queendom.com/cgi-bin/tests/transfer.cgi BACK TO THE TOP Can we recognise people with high or low self-esteem? Make a table of possible outward signs or characteristics of levels of self esteem e.g not making eye-contact etc. Make a role play in a small group and have people take on characters with various levels of self esteem. Use the table of characteristics you have gathered to help you. Let other people in the class watch your role play and guess which characters in your role play have high and low self esteem. Feedback from others Our self esteem can be affected in various ways by other people. Some groups of people have more effect on us than others. Three groups who are especially important are: Significant Others Reference Group Role Models Read this article about role models/heroes and listen to the radio programme/podcast. Self Presentation Our self image and level of self esteem will affect the way we present ourselves to others. Erving Goffman, in his book â€Å"The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life† discusses how we play ‘roles’ to manage the impression other people have of us. He uses the analogy of the theatre, ‘roles’ are like a series of parts we play in life. Think of some of the parts you play – I’ll get you started: Hints for Unit 2 Coursework Some ideas you might explore for your coursework are: Would you be a Size Zero? (Looking good, feeling fit) How does being thin affect your self-identity and self-esteem? (look at the fieldwork examples above) How do we interpret the images we see in the press of fashionable young men and women? Do we identify with them? See them as role models? What do we do with the feedback of others (looking glass self)? (read this article in the Daily Mail) What are the self-maintenance strategies we use to maintain our sense of self-image? Do men and women react the same way to feedback and role models about body image? Pretty in Punk: Can you be a ‘girl’ in a subculture? Traditional ideas of femininity – self image and feedback about being a ‘normal’ female? If you are not ‘pretty’ in the socially accepted definition – long hair, make-up, feminine clothing are you still attractive? Does it matter? How this is expressed in self-presentation through clothing, use of hairstyle, make-up, body shape etc. Good book by Laurain Leblanc Metrosexual Man: Are you one? Is the term ‘metrosexual’ just a fashion statement or is it more of a lifestyle choice or ideology? How do you define your male identity? Is about your personality characteristics? Your attributes? Through the way you present yourself – in clothing, hair or possessions or body shape – muscular, slender? Look at a series of men who ‘appear’ to define their maleness in less stereotypical ways than in the past. Read the article Men in Skirts Metrosexual man is over! Just what is it about moobs? The number of men having breast reduction operations in the UK is rising dramatically, but is this really the result of the media spotlighting the physical flaws of male celebrities? BACK TO THE TOP Sociology/Psychology 530 Lecture 1: DeLamater Exercise 1: Who am I? We have talked in class about how everyone is a â€Å"social object† for everyone else, and that each of us is also a social object to ourselves. In this exercise, we would like you first to take yourself as a social object and, looking at that object, to answer the question â€Å"Who am I?† ten times. That is, ask the question ten times and give ten discrete answers to it. Do it quickly, writing down words and phrases as they come into your mind without censoring them, until you have ten statements. Please do this without considering the other parts of the exercise. After you have done that, â€Å"take the role of the other†, with that other being one of your parents (choose one), and repeat the task. In other words, taking yourself as a social object from your parent’s perspective, list how your parent would answer the question, â€Å"Who is your name here?† Again, assume that your parent was asked to do this task quickly, listing the words and phrases as they come to his or her mind, without censorship, he or she had completed a list of ten answers. Finally, take the role of your best friend and do the same. The Extra Mile Ask one of the significant others themselves to answer the question â€Å"Who is your name here?† Compare his or her list to the list you made when you tried the same task while taking his or her role. Before You Write: Begin by examining your data (the lists you have generated). Consider some of the following: -How are the three lists similar? What words and phrases do all three people (in your opinion, of course) use to describe you? How might you explain the similarities? -How are the three lists different? How do you see yourself in ways that are different from the way you think these significant others see you? Again, how do you explain this? To what extent do you think the differences lie in how you may act differently with them? To what extent is it their needs that lead them to see you differently from the way you see yourself, or from the ways different significant others see you? To what extent might the differences artifacts of your, and your significant others’, places in larger social structures and institutions? Consider the data in light of available theoretical constructs and explanations: -How do theories of the self discussed in Chapter 4 of the textbook and in lecture help you to understand the image of yourself that you hold? To what extent do you believe that your self-image is the result of direct personal experience? To what extent is it a â€Å"looking glass self,† as symbolic interaction would explain it? With how much of it were you born? The Write-Up Draw some conclusions about the relationship of your data to the explanations offered in the course material. Select one central point around which to write your essay. The essay should make references to specific points or concepts from the course material, as well as specific references to relevant points of data.